China
China (中国), officially the People’s Republic of China, exhibits low performance across all four categories in the Global State of Democracy Framework. Since it does not hold national elections, its Representation score is 0. It is among the world’s top 25 per cent of performers in Basic Welfare but falls in the bottom 25 per cent in most other factors, including Civil Liberties and Judicial Independence. Measured by nominal GDP, it is the world’s second largest economy (and first if measured by Purchasing Power Parity). China has a mixed market economy, significantly influenced by the state through strategic plans and state-owned enterprises. It is the world’s biggest exporter and manufacturer and the leading consumer of several natural resources.
China has been headed by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) since 1949. The end of the century of humiliation (1839-1949), which still influences the official public narrative, marked the beginning of modern China. Xi Jinping leads China today, having assumed leadership in 2012. He ushered in an anti-corruption campaign that was also used to eliminate much of the internal opposition to Xi’s rule. With the elimination of term limits, the change of internal rules of the CCP, and the assumption of an unprecedented third term, Xi Jinping effectively ended China’s collective leadership system, which had been implemented to protect against the abuses of previous regimes, and greatly expanded the day-to-day presence of the CCP in society. The CPP has similarly centralized its control over the country’s legal systems and regulatory bodies, as reflected in its inaugural “Plan on Building the Rule of Law in China (2020-2025).
Uninterrupted economic growth in the 1970s and 1980s resulted in an extreme reduction in poverty. It also gave rise to more demands for political rights, culminating in the 1989 Tiananmen Square protest. Post-Tiananmen China saw further gradual economic liberalization and growth.
China also faces internal territorial challenges. It disputes Taiwan’s independence, and its foreign policy has become increasingly assertive around its claim. In Hong Kong, China has repeatedly breached the One Country, Two Systems agreement that was designed to allow Hong Kong to maintain its own political system until 2047. The new security law enacted in Hong Kong in 2024 has heightened concerns regarding the erosion of civil liberties. Of special concern for human rights are the crimes against humanity committed by China in the two autonomous regions of Tibet and Xingang. These regions, the only two where the ethnic Han are not a majority, are subject to invasive surveillance, cultural repression and, especially in Xinjiang, mass detention and “re-education” in concentration camps.
China’s performance on gender equality has been static in the lower-mid range over the past decades. Women’s educational and professional achievements have been remarkable, yet gender wage gaps and unequal political representation – including the all-male Politburo Standing Committee – remain stark. Gender violence and discrimination are widespread, and feminist and LGBQTIA+ rights movements are suppressed. Reproductive rights remain limited, though the One-Child Policy was relaxed in 2015. Ethnic Uyghurs in Xinjiang face harsher consequences as a result of the government efforts to curb population growth.
Looking ahead, China will continue to be shaped by Xi Jinping’s total control of the CCP and the state. It will be important to watch events in Hong Kong and Xinjiang, which could impact Rights and Rule of Law. Internationally, it will be critical to watch how China’s growing influence in the world impacts democratization elsewhere and at home.
Last updated: June 2025
https://www.idea.int/democracytracker/
September 2025
Draft law on ‘ethnic unity’ raises minority rights concerns
On 8 September, the draft Law on Promoting Ethnic Unity and Progress was submitted to the National People’s Congress (legislature). The proposed law alters China’s legal framework governing minority rights, introducing mandatory requirements in education, housing and family life that promote a ‘common consciousness of the Chinese nation.’ The law standardizes the use of Mandarin across all sectors, removing key protections under the 1984 Regional Ethnic Autonomy Law, which allowed minorities to ‘use and develop their own spoken and written languages.’ For example, Mandarin must now ‘take the lead’ and accompany all official documents issued in native languages and is mandated in schools starting from pre-school. Additionally, it criminalizes acts deemed to ‘damage ethnic unity.’ Rights experts have warned that the legal framework will serve to justify the intensified repression of minorities in China, including Tibetans, Mongolians, Uyghurs and diaspora activists.
Sources: Human Rights Watch, South China Morning Post, Jurist, NPC Observer, International IDEA, ChinaAid
June 2024
Hundreds of Uygur villages renamed in Xinjiang
According to Human Rights Watch, Chinese authorities have systematically been renaming villages in Xinjiang, removing names with Uyghur and Islamic cultural meanings in favour of those reflecting Communist Party ideology. A June report identified 630 such changes from 2009 to 2023. Human rights experts have raised concerns that the move is part of the Chinese government's broader efforts to erase the cultural and religious expression of Uyghurs. The Chinese government has, over the past few years, denied allegations of abuse and repression in the region.
Sources: Nikkei Asia, Human Rights Watch, The Guardian, International IDEA (1), International IDEA (2), Al Jazeera
March 2024
Hong Kong passes new national security law
In follow-up to last month's February report, Hong Kong's government passed the new national security bill (Article 3) on 19 March. The bill came into effect on 23 March. Human Rights Watch stated that "the new law will usher Hong Kong into a new era of broad-based oppression."
Sources: International IDEA, Human Rights Watch , South China Morning Post
February 2024
New proposed national security laws raises concerns
Hong Kong’s government is preparing to introduce a new national security bill (Article 3). Critics note that the bill imposes more severe punishments for a broader range of crimes, including potential life imprisonment for treason, extending the scope of the 2020 National Security Law and intensifying the crackdown on civil society, independent media, and the pro-democracy movement in Hong Kong. The legislation also aims to enhance oversight of foreign political entities and organizations in Hong Kong, prohibiting “external interference.” Human rights experts have widely criticized the bill for its broad and vague provisions, which they argue could significantly restrict civil liberties. The Hong Kong government contends that the law will only affect “a small minority of disloyal residents,” citing one month-long public consultations that allegedly showed popular support for the legislation – a claim disputed by rights experts.
Sources: Human Rights Watch, The Associated Press, South China Morning Post, Reuters
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